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Decoding and Fluency Problems of Poor College Readers
RESEARCH TO PRACTICE BRIEF
Issue 8 – December 2008
By Lauren Capotosto
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What are the challenges facing poor college readers?
College instructors often assume that their students have mastered basic reading skills, such as phonics, word recognition, and fluency (Dietrich, 1994). However, many college students in developmental reading courses, as well as those who have reading disabilities, have insufficient word recognition, limited phonics skills, and laborious reading rates - three reading components that contribute to these students' comprehension difficulties (Bell & Perfetti, 1994; Martino & Hoffman, 2002; Sabatini, 1997). Compared to good college readers, these students read more slowly, decode less accurately, and make more oral reading errors affecting text meaning (Bell & Perfetti, 1994; Sabatini, 2002; Vukovic, Wilson, & Nash, 2004; Warde, 2005).
While developmental reading courses typically offer comprehension strategies and vocabulary instruction, many students still need explicit instruction and practice in developing print skills of phonics, word recognition, and fluency (Dietrich, 1994). However, such instruction is rarely incorporated into the college classroom (Dietrich, 1994). This brief provides an overview of research studies describing the print difficulties of many struggling college readers, as well as studies identifying strategies for improving poor readers’ decoding and fluency. (See Appendix for inclusion criteria).
"Reading teachers who work with students at any age level should not assume that their students have an adequate knowledge phonological structures and orthographic patterns or that they have outgrown their need for this type of instruction" (Kitz & Tarver, 1989, p. 204).
What does research say about word-level problems of college students?
Poor college readers make more oral reading errors that affect the meaning of texts than good readers (Bell & Perfetti, 1994; Dietrich, 1994; Martino & Hoffman, 2002; Minus, 1992; Sabatini, 2002; Vukovic, Wilson, & Nash, 2004; Warde, 2005). The relationship between word-level skills and comprehension is clear: students who either misread or skip unfamiliar words are at risk of miscomprehending a text. Analyzing the oral reading miscues of 40 university students who had failed a mandatory state reading test, Warde (2005) found that students who had learning disabilities (LD) not only made significantly more reading errors than students without LD (27 errors per 500-700 words versus 3 errors), but that the errors which LD students made were likely to change the entire meaning of the text.
Such word-level troubles are at the center of many developmental college students' reading problems. In a study of 30 community college students in developmental reading classes, most of whom were native English speakers, Dietrich (1994) found that participants’ average word analysis skill (ability to decode unfamiliar words) was at approximately the fifth grade equivalent, while their average sight word recognition (recollection of words or word parts from memory) was at an eighth grade level. Ninety percent of the students in this sample exhibited moderate to severe problems with phonics skills.
Similarly, in a study that included 81 students in community college developmental reading classes and universities, Minus (1992) found that developmental reading students had significantly lower word recognition and decoding abilities than their university peers. While all but one of the university students scored above the 12th grade level on a word recognition test, the scores of community college students were more evenly distributed between fifth to above-twelfth grade levels. Whereas community college students were able to read one-syllable nonsense words nearly as well as their higher achieving university counterparts, their ability to read polysyllabic nonsense words (such as uncabeness and sanwixable) was significantly lower. Nonsense word assessments are particularly revealing of an individual’s ability to decode unfamiliar words (Chall & Curtis, 1990).
In summary, research clearly suggests that phonics and word decoding problems pose significant challenges for many struggling college readers and that these problems impact their comprehension skills.
What does research say about the fluency skills of college students?
It is not enough for word decoding and recognition processes to be accurate; they must also be rapid so that readers can devote their mental energies toward comprehension (Sabatini, 1997). After repeated exposure and with appropriate decoding skills, words and word parts are stored in memory as visual orthographic images. Such storage allows readers to bypass the decoding stage to quickly retrieve words from memory. For skilled readers, this process takes place within 250 milliseconds of encountering most words (Ashby, 2006, as cited in Strucker, 2008). This automaticity allows readers to devote their focus toward comprehension (Perfetti, 1985; Stanovich, 1986). In contrast, slow and laborious reading poses two major threats to comprehension. First, slower readers must dedicate their mental efforts toward decoding, leaving limited cognitive resources for meaning-making (Apel & Swank, 1999; Adams, 1994; Perfetti, 1985). Secondly, slow reading taxes short-term memory, as it is more difficult to retain the long and complicated sentences often found in college texts at slow reading rates than at rapid speeds (Strucker, 2008).
In light of the typical college student’s workload, this choppy and hesitant reading poses a practical challenge. A part-time student can expect 80 pages of reading per week for one course (Warde, 2005), while full-time students are assigned an average of 250 pages of textbook and outside reading per week (Nist & Diehl, 1994). This workload is substantial even for the average college freshmen reading 263 words per minute (Carver, 1990), but may prove overwhelming for students with particularly slow reading rates. Some research shows poor readers tackling 100 fewer words than the average college freshmen at a mere 133-156 words per minute (Elkind, Black, & Murray, 1996; Sabatini, 2002).
What practices support struggling college readers?
The literature regarding decoding and fluency strategies for college students is limited, though some researchers have noted potentially beneficial pedagogical practices. The strategies that follow have all been documented in college classes.
Text-to-Speech Software
Some researchers suggest that speech synthesizer technology may increase the reading rate of slow readers, which can ultimately aid in reading comprehension (Elkind et al., 1996; Engstrom, 2005). While computer programs offer different features, many highlight text on the monitor while the text is spoken. Users scan texts and select the speed and voice pitch at which the document is spoken. Additionally, users can choose to have read text by page, paragraph, sentence, or word (Elkind et al., 1996).
Studying the effects of one text-to-speech software program with 50 dyslexic adults, Elkind and colleagues (1996) found that use of the software increased the reading rate of slow college readers by approximately 25 words per minute. However, the technology was not equally effective for all readers. Students whose unaided comprehension was strong found that the speech synthesizer technology interfered with their understanding of texts, and in fact, experienced declines in comprehension scores (Elkind et al., 1996). Students who made the greatest gains were those whose unaided rate and comprehension were poor, but whose verbal comprehension was better than average (Elkind et al., 1996). The software may also be particularly valuable for dyslexic students who have significant decoding difficulties (Engstrom, 2005). Nonetheless, even with a 25 wpm increase, students in this sample read only at an average of 180 wpm, still much slower than the mean of 263 wpm for college freshmen (Carver, 1990).
Whole-Class Phonics Instruction
There is some evidence that students in developmental reading classes may benefit from systematic and structured phonics instruction. In a quasi-experimental study comprised of 30 community college students, Dietrich (1994) randomly assigned two developmental reading classes to either a control group that received traditional comprehension strategy instruction and a treatment group, which used a packaged phonics program, Auditory Discrimination in Depth Program. Pretests revealed that students in both groups were in need of phonics support, as the mean word attack score was equivalent to grade 5.5. After a semester of instruction, only students enrolled in the phonics course made significant improvements on word identification and word attack Woodcock Johnson Achievement subtests.
In a similar study, Guyer and Sabatino (1989) examined the effectiveness of multi-sensory phonics instruction with learning disabled college students over five summer weeks. The researchers randomly selected 30 participants from a university’s tutorial center for students with learning disabilities and assigned them to one of three groups: no treatment, phonics instruction, and comprehension-only instruction. The phonics group received modified Orton-Gillingham training, which consisted of learning the 44 sounds in the English language, practicing segmenting words into their smaller components and blending sounds into words, and memorizing rules for syllabication. Results showed that students who received phonics instruction made significant improvements in reading, while students who received no treatment and more traditional comprehension instruction made no significant gains between pre- and posttests.
Although these studies highlight the potential benefits of phonics instruction for struggling college readers, not all research points to its effectiveness. In one experimental study (Chandler, 1993), students who received "traditional" comprehension and vocabulary instruction in a developmental reading course outperformed those who received structured and systematic phonics instruction. It is important to note, however, that researchers only assessed students'’ comprehension, and thus, it is uncertain if learners made progress in the areas of phonics, word recognition, or fluency. Because these skills were not assessed prior to instruction, it is unclear whether these students needed such instruction. The design challenges of this study highlight the importance of assessing students to ensure appropriate course placement and instruction.
Individualized Phonics Instruction: Learning from a Case Study
Struggling readers may also benefit from individualized phonics support in reading labs or from supplemental tutoring services (i.e. Apel & Swank, 1999). Documenting the supplemental services received by a 29-year-old college student with a learning disability, Apel and Swank (1999) determined that the student's word recognition and word analysis skills improved through individualized phonics instruction. Working with learning specialists, this student was encouraged to tap out the number of phonemes (sounds) he heard in a word and to use continuous voicing, a strategy in which readers sound out each letter or digraph (two or more letters that make a single sound, such as ph, sh, or ch) in a word without a voicing break. After 33 hours of this intervention, the student made grade equivalent gains of 3-5 years on various reading assessments.
Untimed Tasks
To assess what students know, as opposed to how quickly they can retrieve and output information, instructors may consider incorporating untimed tasks (Whitt, 1993). In a study of 21 university students enrolled in a developmental reading class, 81% increased their vocabulary in context exercise scores when they were allowed more time to complete tasks than when they were timed (Whitt, 1993). While untimed exercises may not make sense for all assignments, they can yield different information about what a student knows or can do than timed tasks.
Assessments
There are numerous reasons why adult readers may struggle in college. Although word-level challenges, such as decoding and fluency, may explain why many poor college readers have difficulties, they do not explain the problems of all struggling learners. Students may have strong print skills, for example, but exceptionally weak academic and content vocabularies, which contribute to comprehension difficulties (Chall, 1983). To ensure that the course placement, instruction, and supplementary services match students' needs, assessments that test word recognition, phonics, and fluency are equally as important as those that assess comprehension and vocabulary (ex. Accuplacer and Nelson Denny). Studies reviewed in this brief employed a variety of assessments, from comprehensive batteries such as the Woodcock Reading Mastery Tests-Revised (i.e. Apel & Swank, 1999; Guyer & Sabatino, 1989; Marino & Hoffman, 2002) to phonics-specific tests, such as Wilson Assessment of Decoding and Encoding (Engstrom, 2005). By moving beyond comprehension test scores, transition programs and colleges can provide more targeted support that addresses students’ specific reading needs.
What does not seem to work as well?
In addition to identifying potential strategies for supporting college students’ decoding and fluency development, researchers have also noted seemingly less successful activities.
Independent Work
In a study of 18 community college students enrolled in a developmental reading course, Kuehner (1999) found that students who completed 18 hours of independent study in a reading lab did not show gains in reading comprehension or reading rate. Participants in this study read independently from texts, answered a series of comprehension questions, and recorded their own reading rates. They also used Ultimate Reader, a software program for increasing reading rates. The null results of this study replicate findings of the National Reading Panel (2000), which found that self-sustained silent reading did not seem to impact students' reading rates. Kuehner (1999) concluded that a reading program, whether text- or computer-based, that requires students to read passages and answer questions independently does not benefit students, as measured by standardized tests. These findings support the argument that instruction matters.
Texts with Cue Boundaries
Research suggests that students with fluency challenges have difficulties identifying meaningful "chunks" of texts, such as distinguishing dependent phrases from independent clauses, and that they struggle with identifying appropriate pause points in a sentence (Chall, 1983). In an attempt to address these challenges, 42 developmental reading students in one study were assigned to read either regular texts or those in which slash marks indicated "cue boundaries" for fluent reading (Rasinski, 1984). Results showed no differences between the two groups on comprehension posttests, but significantly slower reading rates for the group that received texts with explicitly cued phrase boundaries (Rasinski, 1984). The researcher proposes that the obtrusiveness of these boundaries may have interfered with comprehension. In later work with adolescent readers, Rasinski and colleagues (2005) found that repeated reading and choral reading are two strategies that better help to develop fluency.
Speed Reading Instruction and Software
While students may be trained to read rapidly by fixating on words for less time, research suggests that there is a trade-off. Increased reading rates are often at the expense of decreases in accuracy and comprehension (Just & Carpenter, 1984). Two studies on the use of speed-reading software with community college students in developmental reading classes showed no significant differences in posttest reading rates between students who read on paper and those who used speed reading packages (Kuehner, 1999; Wepner, Feeley, & Wilde, 1989). Eye movement research may help explain these null findings. While it was once commonly accepted that slow eye movements caused reading difficulties, researchers now know that it is the difficulty of a text that determines a reader's eye movement patterns (Stanovich, 1986). While reading software programs have clearly evolved in the past decade, instructors interested in using such technology should carefully research products and monitor student progress to ensure that software programs are helping students achieve their reading goals.
Conclusion
The nature of the reading difficulties of many struggling college readers is complex and extends beyond comprehension challenges. Students who completed high school or adult education programs may still confront decoding challenges and slow reading rates that hinder their success in college. While extant research provides insight into the complexity of college students' reading challenges, many questions remain. Should community colleges designate reading classes for phonics and fluency instruction? Are students with poor print skills better served through whole-class instruction in developmental reading classes or individualized tutoring? What percent of the difficulties facing poor college readers can be attributed to word recognition, phonics, and fluency problems, and what percent stems from other challenges, such as limited academic vocabulary? With so many questions unanswered, reading instructors face a challenging, but not insurmountable task of improving the skills of poor college readers. Simply being aware that some college students struggle with word-level challenges places educators in a position to better serve students. Reading teachers may consider further assessment to identify the specific learning challenges facing these readers and implementing strategies to improve phonics and reading rates. For more information, see the resources below.
Where Can I Learn More?
Text-to-Speech Software
The Harnessing Technology to Serve Adult Literacy website provides links to both free and commercial text-to-speech software. (http://alri.org/harness.html)
Research-Based Principles for Adult Basic Education Reading Instruction
This comprehensive document offers practitioners a guide to the components of reading, information about assessments, and tips for practice. (http://www.nifl.gov/partnershipforreading/publications
/adult_ed_02.pdf)
Assessments
The National Institute for Literacy website provides detailed assessment strategies and reading profiles. Educators can access free assessments, as well as tips for working with adult students of varying reading abilities.
(http://www.nifl.gov/readingprofiles/)
References
Adams, M.J. (1994). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print. Cambridge, MA:
MIT Press.
Apel, K. & Swank, L.K. (1999). Second chances: Improving decoding skills in the older student.
Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 30, 231-242.
Bell, L.C. & Perfetti, C.A. (1994). Reading skill: Some adult comparisons. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 86(2), 244-255.
Carver, R.P. (1990). Reading rate: A review of research and theory. Boston, MA. Academic
Press Inc.
Chall, J.S. and Curtis, M.E. (1990). Diagnostic achievement testing in reading. In Reynolds
and Kamphaus (eds.), The Handbook of Psychological and Educational Assessment of
Children. V. I. New York: Guilford Press.
Chall, J.S. (1983). Stages of reading development. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Chandler, C.T., Munday, R., Tunnell, J.W., & Windham, R. (1993). Orton-Gillingham: A
reading strategy revisited. Reading Improvement, 30(1), 59-64.
Dietrich, J.A. (1994). The effects of auditory perception training on the reading ability of adult
poor readers. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research
Association, New Orleans, LA., April 4-8, 1994. (ERIC document Reproduction Service No.
367 964).
Elkind, J., Black, M.S., & Murray, C. (1996). Computer-based compensation of adult reading
disabilities. Annals of Dyslexia, 46, 159-186.
Engstrom, E.U. (2005). Reading, writing, and assistive technology: An integrated developmental
curriculum for college students. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 40(1), 30-39.
Guyer, B.P. & Sabatino, D. (1989). The effectiveness of a multisensory alphabetic phonetic
approach with college students who are learning disabled. Journal of Learning Disabilities,
22(7), 430-434.
Kitz, W.R. & Tarver, S.G. (1989). Comparison of dyslexic and nondyslexic adults on decoding
and phonemic awareness tasks. Annals of Dyslexia, 39, 196-205.
Kuehner, A.V. (1999). The effects of computer-based vs. text-based instruction on remedial
college readers. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 43(2), 160-168.
Martino, N.L. & Hoffman, P.R. (2002). An investigation of reading and language abilities of
college freshmen. Journal of Research in Reading, 25(3), 310-318.
Minus, M.E. (1992). The relationship of phonemic awareness to reading level and the effects of
phonemic awareness instruction on the decoding skills of adult disabled readers. Paper
presented at the Annual Meeting of the National Reading Conference, San Antonio, TX,
December 2-5, 1992. (ERIC Document Reproduction Services No. ED 352 641).
National Reading Panel. (2000). Teaching children to read. Retrieved June 20, 2008, from
http://www.nationalreadingpanel.org/Publications/summary.htm
Nist, S., & Diehl, W. (1994). Developing textbook thinking (3rd ed.). Lexington, MA: D.C.
Heath.
Perfetti, C.A. (1985). Reading ability. New York: Oxford University Press.
Rasinski, T. (1987). The effects of reading phrased texts on readers’ comprehension and
fluency: An exploratory study. Paper presented at Annual Meeting of the National Reading
Conference, Clearwater, FL., December 3-6, 1987. (ERIC Document Reproduction Services
No. ED 291 079).
Sabatini, J.P. (2002). Efficiency in word reading of adults: Ability group comparisons. Scientific
Studies of Reading, 6(3), 267-298.
Sabatini, J.P. (1997). Is accuracy enough? The cognitive implications of speed of response in
adult reading ability. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Delaware.
Stanovich, K.E. (1986). Matthew effects in reading: Some consequences of individual
differences in the acquisition of literacy. Reading Research Quarterly, 21(4), 360-407.
Strucker, J. (2008). Theoretical considerations underlying the reading components. In Grenier,
Jones, Strucker, Murray, and Gervais, Learning Literacy in Canada: Evidence from the
International Survey of Reading Skills. Retrieved July 18, 2008, from
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/89-552-MIE/89-552-MIE2008019.pdf
Vukovic, R.K., Wilson, A.M., & Nash, K.K. (2004). Naming speed deficits in adults with
reading disabilities: A test of the double-deficit hypothesis. Journal of Learning Disabilities,
37(5), 440-450.
Warde, B.A. (2005). Reading miscues of college students with and without learning disabilities.
Journal of College Reading and Learning, 36(1), 21-36.
Wepner, S.B., Feeley, J.T., & Wilde, S. (1989). Using computers in college reading courses? Journal of Developmental Education, 13(1), 6-8.
Whitt, M. (1993). The effect of reading rate on vocabulary. Journal of Instructional Psychology,
20(1), 72-77.
Appendix
How were articles selected for inclusion in this brief?
To synthesize research on college students' decoding and fluency, the following databases were searched: ERIC, Education Abstracts, Academic Search Premier, and Dissertations and Theses. In addition, relevant articles referenced in texts were identified and reviewed.
We established methodological, publication, and substantive criteria for inclusion in this Research to Practice brief. First, given the limited amount of research on the phonics and fluency skills of poor college readers, it was important to broadly include studies of multiple methodologies. Thus, this synthesis includes literature reviews, case studies, correlational studies, quasi-experiments, and experiments. Regarding the publication criteria, only opinion papers not supported by research were excluded. Peer-reviewed articles, papers presented at conferences, and dissertations were all reviewed and included in this brief. Finally, all research included in this synthesis specifically studied struggling college readers. Research samples included students in developmental reading courses at community colleges, adults who performed exceptionally low on a standardized assessment (i.e. lower than the 25th percentile), and students with learning disabilities who were struggling academically.
Three sets of descriptors were used in this search. Set I included words related to reading (phonics, decode/decoding, literacy, phonology, phonological, reading, word recognition, word attack, word reading, fluency, and reading rate). Words in Set II related to type of school (college, transition to college program, community college, and university). Finally, Set III referred to words related to the type of class and student (developmental reading, remedial reading, struggling college reader, poor college reader). Twenty studies were included in the final synthesis, with additional resources not specific to adult literacy were included to explain reading theory.
About the Author
Lauren Capotosto, EdM, is a doctoral student at Harvard Graduate School of Education. She has taught reading at community-based adult education programs and a community college in the Boston area. You can reach her at lac922@mail.harvard.edu
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